Guide to Ground Vehicle Operations

[Chelsey Newland]

GUIDE TO GROUND VEHICLE OPERATIONS SAN ANDREAS AVIATION ADMINISTRATION TABLE OF CONTENTS: 1. INTRODUCTION 2. AIRPORT BASICS 3. AIRFIELD SIGNS, MARKINGS AND LIGHTING 4. TOWERED AIRPORTS 5. NON-TOWERED AIRPORTS 6. AVIATION PHRASEOLOGY 7. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION 8. CONCLUSION â €

1. INTRODUCTION

The SAAA Guide to Ground Vehicle Operations was created or you, the driver of a tug, fuel truck, baggage cart or other airport vehicle. This guide is not intended to provide comprehensive coverage of everything there is to know about surface safety. Rather, it focuses on five areas that are most important, as well as containing additional information.

Each section identifies safety measures and information that will help you maintain situational awareness while on the airfield. “Situational awareness” is defined as being aware of your location on the airfield and how that location relates to your destination, other vehicles and aircraft. It can be maintained consistently by:

• Understanding and following Air Traffic Control (ATC)
  instructions and clearances.

• Using an airport diagram.

• Knowing the meaning of the visual aids available on the
  airport, such as airfield markings, signs and lights.

Maintaining situational awareness will help you avoid errors that lead to runway incursions. Runway incursions are a serious safety concern and it doesn’t take much to be involved in one. Incursions and collisions have included all types of commercial, military and private aircraft as well as GROUND VEHICLES. Some have resulted in fatalities. All employees who operate vehicles or motorized equipment on airports have key responsibilities in these safety efforts, as this guide outlines.

2. AIRPORT BASICS

AIRPORT BASICS

This section outlines the basic features of any airport. There may be important unique aspects to the airport on which you drive, such as dedicated vehicle lanes, areas not visible to controllers or nonstandard airport traffic patterns. Be aware and know the rules of your airport.

Runway Safety Area
The Runway Safety Area (RSA) is an area surrounding the runway, and is measured from the runway ends and centerline. Much like the shoulder area on a highway, the runway safety area is intended for use by aircraft in emergency situations, i.e., landing short of, veering off of, or overshooting the runway, and always should be free of vehicles, equipment and pedestrians any time aircraft are taxiing, taking off or landing. When the tower is in operation, vehicles and pedestrians are required to have clearance to access these areas. During periods when the tower is not operating or at a non-towered airport, extreme caution should be used.

The RSA can be identified by a hold line, also known as a holding position marking, which is painted in yellow on taxiway surfaces and collocated with a holding position sign. The holding position sign has a red background with white characters. The actual dimensions of the RSA will vary depending on the tail height and wing span of the largest aircraft authorized to utilize the airport. Its distance from the runway centerline may extend up to 280 feet across and as much as 1,000 feet beyond the runway ends.

Aprons/Ramps
Aprons, also called ramps, are the areas where aircraft park, load and unload. Your work may require you to drive on an apron. In addition to watching for moving aircraft on the apron, be careful to maintain a safe distance when working around parked aircraft. Aside from nicks and dents that are expensive to repair and can affect the airworthiness of the aircraft, you could get hurt and your vehicle damaged when an aircraft starts its engine. This hazard is called jet blast or prop wash. There have been several cases where vehicles have been overturned by jet blast. Drivers should be aware of the rotating red beacon(s) located on the aircraft's tail, and sometimes on its underside. The beacon is typically illuminated in conjunction with imminent engine start.

Runway Markings are
Runways have white numbers on each end, centerline stripes down the middle and may have white lines along the edges. Runways that are served by an instrument approach will have more elaborate markings such as those shown in Figure 1.1.


Figure 1.1 – Runway Markings (not to scale).

Taxiway Markings are
Taxiways are areas used by aircraft to get to and from the apron/ramp and the runway. Taxiways look similar to runways, but are usually not as wide. Instead of numbers, taxiways use letters or letter/number combinations for designators. See Figure 1.1

BEST PRACTICES FOR SAFE DRIVING

On the Movement Areas

• Together, runways and taxiways are known as the
  MOVEMENT AREAS of the airfield.

• Airport diagrams provide the layout and designations of
  runways and taxiways, show the location of major facilities
  and are essential to navigating the airfield surface. Always
  have a current airport diagram in your vehicle.

• If you are required to drive on or work in areas adjacent to
  runways, be aware that aircraft wings and engines may extend
  over these areas. ATC approval is typically required to operate
  in these areas

• If you become uncertain of your location on the airport
  movement area, STOP and immediately contact ATC for
  help.

EXPLICIT RUNWAY CROSSING CLEARANCES: Never cross a holding position marking including hold lines for inactive or closed runways without explicit ATC instructions. Instructions to cross a runway will be issued one at a time. An aircraft or vehicle must have crossed the previous runway before another runway crossing is issued.

• Know your airfield markings, signs and lighting (as outlined
  in the next section). Be careful not to hit taxiway edge lights.

Around Aircraft

• Aircraft cockpit windows have a limited viewing area. It
  can be difficult or impossible for pilots to see vehicles and
  pedestrians, particularly behind the wings or under the nose
  of the aircraft.

• Always yield the right-of-way to moving aircraft. Do not
  assume the pilot will see you, especially in busy areas like
  aprons/ramps where pilots are busy with preflight checks

• If a pilot is about to start the engine or the engine is running,
  the aircraft’s red rotating beacon(s) should be turned on as
  well.

While Communicating with Air Traffic Control (ATC)

• Avoid distractions and focus on where other vehicles and/or
  aircraft are on the airfield, especially on your intended route

• Always use standard aviation phraseology and proper
  communications procedures when contacting ATC in order to
  facilitate clear and concise communications.

• Write down taxi instructions, especially instructions that are
  complex. This can help reduce your vulnerability of forgetting
  part of the instruction.

• When in doubt, STOP and ask for help or clarification from
  ATC.

During Construction

• Extra vigilance is necessary when driving on an airport during
  construction. Normal driving routes may be altered, runways and
  taxiways may be closed, runway thresholds may be displaced or
  relocated and hot spots may be identified. Therefore, remember to
  review your expected driving route against areas of construction,
  especially if you are operating a rescue vehicle.

Hot Spots

• ICAO defines a hot spot as a location on an aerodrome
  movement area with a history or potential risk of collision or
  runway incursion, and where heightened attention by pilots and
  drivers is necessary.

A hot spot is a runway safety related problem typically at a complex or confusing taxiway/taxiway or taxiway/ runway intersection. As a vehicle driver, it is your responsibility to be familiar with these areas and use extreme caution when driving in, or near them. The airport diagram will usually, but not always point out designated hot spots. Be certain to use the most up-to-date diagram as hot spots will remain charted until such time the increased risk has been reduced or eliminated.

3. AIRFIELD SIGNS, MARKINGS AND LIGHTING

SIGNS AND MARKINGS

As a driver, it is important that you know the meanings of the signs and markings used on airports as navigational aids. Sometimes the information on the sign is also painted on the airport pavement. An overview of some of the most common signs and markings is described on the following pages.

Runway Holding Position Marking
Painted yellow on the taxiway pavement and collocated with the holding position sign, this is an airport version of a stop sign. As you approach the runway, you will see two solid yellow lines with two dashed lines. Prior to reaching the solid lines, it is imperative that you STOP and do not cross the lines until you have clearance from ATC. When the tower is closed or you are operating at a non-towered airport, you may cross only when the runway is clear of aircraft, and then cross with extreme caution. Always look both ways before you cross any runway!

When exiting a runway, you will see these same markings, except your vehicle will be approaching the dashed lines. Your vehicle must completely cross both the dashed and the solid lines to be clear of the runway

Runway Holding Position Sign
May be seen as a sign and/or painted on the pavement, it has white characters on a red background. This sign/marking is collocated with the surface painted holding position markings on taxiway and runway intersections.
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Do not drive past this sign or marking without a clearance from ATC. Doing so without clearance from the tower poses a hazard to yourself and others. When the tower is closed or you are operating at a nontowered airport, you may cross only when the runway is clear of aircraft, and then you should proceed with extreme caution
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Location Signs and Markings Black background with yellow letters and/ or numbers. These signs and surfacepainted markings indicate your location. REMEMBER: BLACK SQUARE, YOU’RE THERE. (See Figure 2.1)

Taxiway Direction Signs and Markings These signs and markings with a yellow background and black characters indicate the direction toward a different taxiway leading off a runway or out of an intersection. YELLOW ARRAY, LEADS THE WAY. (See Figures 2.1 and 2.2)

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Figure 2.1 – Surface painted location and direction markings.


Figure 2.2 – Examples of taxiway sign arrays with and without current location on Taxiway Alpha. ⠀
Holding position markings for ILS critical areas appear on the pavement as a yellow horizontal ladder and extend across the width of the taxiway. An ILS holding position sign with white characters on a red background is typically situated adjacent to these ILS holding position markings. Hold short of this area when instructed to by ATC.
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ILS Boundary Sign
This sign identifies the boundary of the ILS critical area for pilots and vehicle operators exiting the runway. Pilots and vehicle operators must proceed beyond this sign to clear the ILS critical area when instructed to do so by ATC.
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Non-Movement Area Boundary Markings
A single solid line along with single dashed yellow lines, this marking divides the movement and non-movement areas on the airfield. When you are positioned on the solid line side of the marking, or the non-movement area, ATC clearance is required for you to drive across into the movement area.
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Runway Safety Area Boundary Sign
Yellow sign with black markings. Visible only when exiting the runway. The sign is typically used on towered airports where a controller commonly requests a pilot to report clear of a runway, which occurs when this sign is passed.
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Geographic Position Markings
Pink with black and white. Some large airports use these markings in low visibility conditions as position points on the taxiway.
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Helicopter Landing Area Marking
Some airports have a designated helicopter landing pad. This area is depicted with an “H” inside of a square. Be especially careful when you drive near helipads. Look up for landing helicopters. As is the case for aircraft, yield the right-of-way to a helicopter.
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Destination Signs
Yellow background with black letters. The taxiways at your airport may have these signs next to them to identify the direction to a specific destination, e.g. parking area.
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Relocated Threshold
A point on the runway other than the beginning of the full strength pavement, which is not available for the landing or takeoff of aircraft. Thus, a relocated threshold marks the end of the runway. The abandoned runway area may or may not be available for taxiing. Possible causes for threshold relocation include construction or other airport maintenance.
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Chevrons
Large yellow painted arrows that identify paved blast pads, stop areas, and EMAS (engineered materials arresting systems). A minimum of two chevrons will be painted and aligned with the runway end. The pavement marked by chevrons is not to be used, unless in conjunction with an EMAS when it may be used to help stop an aircraft overrun.
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Aprons/Ramps
Aprons/Ramps have markings for aircraft parking and tie-downs. Some airport aprons/ramps also have special markings for vehicle operations. If there are vehicle or roadway markings, you should always drive your vehicle within those marked areas. In addition, taxiways may be marked on the apron to show aircraft routes to gates and parking areas.
⠀ ⠀ Examples of vehicle surface markings; roadways bounded by “zipper”
markings are also used by aircraft. â €

When driving near navigational aids, stay out of the protected areas around them to avoid interfering with their signals. If a road or taxiway is close enough to an ILS to affect it, there should be an ILS holding position sign.

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LIGHTING
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There are many different lighting combinations that may be located on some airports, especially where aircraft operations are conducted in lower visibility ranges.
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Runway Edge and Centerline Lights
Runway edge lights are clear/white, except on instrument runways where yellow replaces white on the last 2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution zone for landings. Centerline lights alternate red/white starting 3,000 feet from the end, and are solid red starting 1,000 feet from the end.
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Taxiway Edge Lights or Reflectors are blue in color and used to outline the edges of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions.
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Taxiway Centerline Lights or Reflectors are green except for the lead-on and lead-off lights, which alternate yellow and green to indicate that you are entering or leaving the runway environment.
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Runway Guard Lights are flashing yellow lights that can be in-pavement or elevated and are used to help identify a runway holding position.
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In-Pavement Runway Guard Light
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Elevated Runway Guard Light â €
VEHICLE LIGHT GUN SIGNALS
Air traffic controllers have a backup system for communicating if radios fail. Controllers use a light gun that flashes different colors to tell pilots or vehicle drivers what to do. Even a failed radio is not an excuse for proceeding without a proper clearance. If you are ever working on a runway or taxiway and radio communication fails, you should:

• Turn your vehicle toward the tower

• Flash your headlights

• Wait for the controller to signal you with the light gun

• Be patient! If the controller’s attention is directed toward
  another part of the airport, it may take a few minutes.

• If still waiting, try a different radio frequency or call from a
  cell phone. Store the tower phone number in your cell phone
  for emergencies.

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4. TOWERED AIRPORTS

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TOWERED AIRPORTS If your airport has an air traffic control (ATC) tower, it is a towered airport whenever the tower is operating. Pilots and vehicle drivers wanting to enter a runway or taxiway (movement areas) must first get permission from the tower. â € As an operator of a vehicle, you must have authorization from ATC before you enter any part of the airport movement area. When the tower is in operation, you must utilize a two-way radio for communicating with and receiving instructions from air traffic control.

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Radio Communications Procedures

• Ensure the availability of a radio capable of transmitting and
  receiving on the airport’s ground control frequency. Perform a
  "radio check" to assess your radio's operability at the start of
  each shift.

• Each vehicle should be designated with an identifying call
  sign, and be marked and lighted appropriately.

• Know the standard Air Traffic Control (ATC) phraseology
  and never use Citizen’s Band (CB) lingo or law enforcement
  ‘ten’ codes.

• Think about what you are going to say before calling the
  controller. Know your call sign, location on the airfield and
  where you intend to go.

• At most facilities, the above information can be included on
  the initial call as in the following example:

Driver: Cincinnati ground, vehicle one at gate four would like to cross runway one eight right at taxiway alpha and proceed to the VOR.
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Controllers: Vehicle one, Cincinnati ground, proceed via alpha, hold short of runway one eight right.
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Driver: Roger, vehicle one, proceeding via alpha, will hold short of runway one eight right.

• At larger facilities or when the controller is busy, it is best to
  simply call the tower with your identification and wait for the
  controller’s response as in the following:

Driver: Cincinnati ground, vehicle one.
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...time elapses...
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Controllers: Vehicle one, Cincinnati ground.
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Driver: Vehicle one at gate four would like to cross runway one eight right at taxiway alpha and proceed to the VOR.

• Read back of all runway holding instructions is required
  and must include the phrase "Hold Short", the runway's
  identifying number and your call sign.

The “Aviation Terminology” section lists air traffic control terms and phrases with definitions. You should know what they mean before driving on an airfield.
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With a little practice, radio communications are not difficult. If you are ever unsure about what the controller said, or if you don’t understand an instruction, ask the controller to repeat the communication by transmitting “SAY AGAIN” .
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A controller, even one who is extremely busy, would rather repeat and explain instructions than have a misunderstanding lead to a runway incursion. Don’t proceed thinking that the instructions will become clear once you drive a little farther.
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Advance Coordination
When you contact the tower before an operation, you will receive instructions on how to proceed. Be sure you understand your route, stopping points and holding positions. If you are not sure where you are going and would like turn-by-turn directions, ask the controller for “progressive” taxi instructions.
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Use extreme caution when you hear the phraseology “go ahead”. It is only meant for you to proceed with your message and is not to be used for any other purpose. It NEVER means to proceed in moving about, or to drive on the airfield

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5. NON-TOWERED AIRPORTS

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NON-TOWERED AIRPORTS
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When the control tower is closed or if there is no tower, the airport is referred to as non-towered. At a non-towered airport, you do not need controller permission before entering a runway or taxiway.
Below are some best practices for operating on a non-towered airport:

• When you approach the runways and taxiways, STOP, LOOK
  both ways, and LISTEN for aircraft that are landing or taking
  off. Vehicle windows should be open to do this properly

• Alert others when you are using a taxiway or runway by
  always making an announcement on the radio before you
  enter. Be specific with your location and intentions.

• Always yield the right-of-way to taxiing aircraft and give them
  plenty of room. If an aircraft is headed toward you on the
  same taxiway, move out of the aircraft’s way.

• Always carry a radio tuned to the airport’s Common Traffic
  Advisory Frequency (CTAF) or UNICOM.

• If an aircraft is about to land on a runway that you need to
  cross, stop well clear of the runway. Continue to yield to the
  aircraft until it has landed and taxied off of the runway.

• Be aware that some aircraft at non-towered
  airports are not equipped with radios.

• Before you cross a runway, ensure that no potentially
  conflicting aircraft are taxiing, landing or taking off. Be
  aware of aircraft at non-towered airports that frequently make
  touch-and-go landings (immediately after landing, full power
  is applied and the aircraft takes off again).

• If your vehicle has a rotating beacon, be sure to turn it on
  anytime you are on the airport surface. Turn on headlights as
  well, being careful not to blind any pilots in the area.

Example of a self-announcement by driver on
UNICOM or CTAF:
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Driver: Millville traffic. Ops one vehicle entering runway 28 at approach end and proceeding full length to the end of the runway.

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Traffic Patterns
Aircraft approaching a runway for landing usually follow a standard landing pattern. Most runways are positioned so planes will take off and land into the wind. In most cases, the pattern is a rectangular box with the pilot making all turns to the left, as shown in Figure 3.1. In a few cases, airports will use right traffic patterns. However, don’t assume all aircraft will always be flying in the standard pattern - it is not required, only recommended - so keep a visual look out to the sky just
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Pilot: Millville traffic. Cherokee two zero niner zero whiskey, entering left downwind runway one zero, Millville

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in case a pilot decides to fly a ‘straight in’ approach and doesn’t enter the standard traffic pattern. Similarly, if a pilot announces "short final", expect that aircraft’s landing to be imminent.
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Pilots announce their position on the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)/Unicom using the names of the segments of the traffic pattern: Upwind, Crosswind, Downwind, Base and Final.
See Figure 3.1
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Extra vigilance is essential at non-towered airports, or when the control tower is not operating. While there may be CTAF or UNICOM frequencies available, pilots are not required to communicate or announce their position in the traffic pattern or on the surface. As a result, a driver can be lulled into complacency because the airport is not very busy. Nevertheless, always remain alert for the unexpected, even when aircraft traffic levels are light.
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Another factor involves the runway angle or slope, which makes it difficult or impossible to see the entire length of the runway. As a result, an aircraft can suddenly appear on a runway when you are crossing. Generally, it is good practice to cross runways at their ends. If one is available, a perimeter road or taxiway is the recommended route for crossing a runway at a non-towered airfield.
⠀ Figure 3.1 – Diagram of airport traffic pattern operations. ⠀

6. AVIATION PHRASEOLOGY

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AVIATION TERMINOLOGY
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This section contains a glossary of terms commonly used in ground or surface operations.

• Acknowledge - Let me know that you have received and
  understood this message.
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• Advise Intentions - Tell me what you plan to do.
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• Affirmative - Yes.
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• Confirm - My understanding of your transmission is ______ :
  Is that correct?
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• Correction - An error has been made in the transmission and
  the correct version follows.
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• Final - Commonly used to mean that an aircraft is on the final
  approach course or is aligned with a landing area.
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• Go Ahead - Proceed with your message. Not to be used for any
  other purpose.
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• Hold or Hold Position - Stay in place where you are currently
  located.
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• Hold Short of… - Proceed to, but hold short of a specific point
  and maintain appropriate distance to avoid interfering with
  other traffic. With respect to runways, always stop at the runway

holding position marking unless otherwise directed by ATC. A read back confirmation to ATC is required anytime a "hold short" instruction is given.

• Line Up and Wait (LUAW) - This phrase has replaced the
  "Position and Hold" instruction by a controller to direct a pilot
  to enter the runway and await takeoff clearance.
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• Negative - No; Permission not granted; That is not correct.
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• Proceed - You are authorized to begin or continue moving.
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• Read Back - Repeat my message back to me.
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• Roger - I have received your last transmission; but not to be
  used to answer a question requiring a “yes” or “no” response (see
  Affirmative, Negative).
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• Say Again - Repeat what you just said.
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• Stand By - Wait for further information, as in “stand by for
  clearance”.
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• Unable - Indicates inability to comply with a specific
  instruction, request or clearance.
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• Verify - Request confirmation of information.
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• Without Delay - Follow instructions expeditiously, specifically
  and safely.
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• Wilco - I have received your message, understand it and will
  comply.

AVIATION PHONETICS
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Because some letters and numbers may sound similar, the following list will reduce confusion. For example, Taxiway B would be referred to as Taxiway Bravo, and Runway 29 is Runway Two Niner. As a vehicle driver, commit this phonetic alphabet to memory.
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A Alpha
B Bravo
C Charlie
D Delta
E Echo
F Foxtrot
G Golf
H Hotel
I India
J Juliet
K Kilo
L Lima
M Mike
N November
O Oscar
P Papa
Q Quebec
R Romeo
S Sierra
T Tango
U Uniform
V Victor
W Whiskey
X X-ray
Y Yankee
Z Zulu
0 Zero
1 One
2 Two
3 Three
4 Four
5 Five
6 Six
7 Seven
8 Eight
9 Niner

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7. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
In addition to all the information provided to you in this publication, there are other things to be aware of while operating a vehicle on the airport.
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Foreign Object Debris (FOD)
Trash or rocks sucked into a jet engine can shred parts of the engine in seconds. A rock caught by a propeller can damage the propeller, as well as become a deadly projectile. Make your airport a safer place by putting all trash in a covered container that won’t be blown over. Get in the habit of picking up any trash and debris that you notice while driving around the airport. Avoid tracking mud and rocks onto taxiway and runway surfaces.
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Reporting Accidents
If you are involved in an accident, report it immediately. If a collision occurred between you and an aircraft, it’s critical that the aircraft not be flown until the damage can be inspected and repaired.
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Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF)
Just as when you are in highway traffic, if you see an airport emergency vehicle with its lights on, do not proceed until it has cleared. Always stay alert for any type of emergency activity and accompanying vehicles.
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All vehicles operating at a towered airport, including ARFF and police, are required to receive explicit runway crossing instructions from ATC. This applies to all runways encountered: active, inactive and closed, regardless of the type of emergency!

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Security
Depending on the type of airport you work on, the security system may be as simple as a fence or it may include items as complicated as computer controlled automatic gates with television screen monitors. At large air carrier airports, security will be provided by the airport’s police department or local law enforcement. At smaller airports, the airport manager or the fixed-base operator may be responsible for security.
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If you see a gate left open, close it, and then report it to the airport security office. Never let someone follow you through a gate. If you see a strange person or vehicle that appears lost, stop and offer assistance. Or, if your airport has a security department, contact them for help. If you work at an air carrier airport, the airport manager has a complete security plan of the airport with detailed procedures for specific situations. Be sure you know what your responsibilities are and ask your supervisor if there is anything about which you are unsure.
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Nighttime or Bad Weather Driving
If you are required to drive on the airport at night, on your first couple of trips take someone along who is very familiar with the airfield. Things look different at night. The same applies if you are driving in bad weather. In both cases, allow yourself extra travel time and drive slower than you would normally. Remember, your vehicle’s rotating beacon and headlights will provide additional visibility and help to identify your vehicle to others.
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During winter conditions, signs and markings may be obscured by snow. Snow equipment may be operating in low visibility conditions and may not see your vehicle. Use caution; remember there are extra risks present.
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This guide has covered the basics of how to safely drive on an airport. Remember to be courteous to your fellow drivers, pay attention, drive carefully, follow instructions, avoid distractions, obey the rules and regulations and set a good example. Eventually, with experience, you will attain a comfortable working knowledge of how to safely move around.
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8. CONCLUSION

If there is something you don’t understand, seek clarification before proceeding, especially when you are at a towered airport with an operating ATC tower. With experience, you will attain a comfortable working knowledge of moving about the airport surface safely. Always maintain situational awareness and contact ATC if you are unsure, lost or unclear of an instruction.